Women and girls on the move
Gender plays a crucial role in migration, influencing reasons behind migration, who migrates, who stays behind, migration patterns, networks utilized, available opportunities and resources at destinations, and relationships with the country of origin. Risks, vulnerabilities, and needs are also shaped in large part by one’s gender, and often vary drastically for different groups. It also significantly impacts the risks, vulnerabilities, and diverse needs of different groups. Gender identity, expression, sexual orientation, and sex characteristics shape all aspects of the migration process and can also be affected in new ways by migration.
Gender inequalities contribute to heightened risks. Thus, addressing gender dynamics and inequalities within policymaking, planning and programming can contribute to social and economic empowerment and promote gender equality. Overlooking such considerations can expose persons of different genders to further risks and vulnerabilities and perpetuate or exacerbate inequalities.
The Global Compact for Migration and the New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants call for more migration data to be disaggregated by sex and age. Greater collection and use of sex-disaggregated data supports stronger policy making, resource allocation and action to understand and address gaps and inequalities in capacities and vulnerabilities along the migration continuum.
Key trends
This section predominantly uses migration data disaggregated by sex, which contributes to the understanding of sex and gender-based dynamics of human mobility. Disaggregating data by gender is important to understand the diverse socioeconomic realities of individuals of different genders (Hennebry et al., 2021).
In this section, the terms “women”, “girls”, “females”, “men”, “boys” and “males” refer to sex-disaggregated data on adult females, female children, females of all ages, adult males, male children, and males of all ages respectively. These terms are used to facilitate ease of reading and do not refer to data disaggregated by gender unless otherwise specified.
The share of female migrants has not changed significantly in the past decades. However, more female migrants are migrating independently for work, education and as heads of households. Despite these improvements, female migrants may still face greater discrimination, are more vulnerable to mistreatment, and can experience double discrimination as both migrants and as females in their host country in comparison to male migrants. Nonetheless, male migrants are also exposed to vulnerabilities in the migration processes. Therefore, the collection and use of gender-responsive migration data have the potential to promote greater equality and offer opportunities for disadvantaged gender groups.
Back to topFemale migrants
At mid-year 2024, female migrants comprised somewhat less than half, 146 million or 48per cent, of the global international migrant stock (UN DESA, 2024). The share of female migrants has remained relatively consistent over the past years (48.03 % in mid-2020 vs 49.97 in mid-2020 and varied regionally, with the lowest share in Asia (42%), and the highest one in Europe (52%) (ibid.).
Female migrant workers
Among formal migrant workers, male migrant workers made up 102.7 million or 61.3 per cent of the total number globally in 2022, an increase from 84.2 million in 2013. They represented 4.7 per cent of the male labour force worldwide (ILO, 2024).
Female migrant workers made up up 38.7 per cent (64.9 million) of all migrants workers, an increase from 53.2 million in 2013. They made up 4.5 per cent of the total global female labour force (ibid.).
The distribution of female migrant workers in the labour force varied significantly by region in 2022. Europe and Central Asia hosted the highest concentration of migrant women in the labour force (38.8%), followed by the Americas (30.5%), Asia and the Pacific (17.1%), Africa (8.3%) and the Arab States (5.2%). However, migrant women working in informal labour or unpaid domestic labour may not be represented in these statistics (ibid.).
While the global labour force participation of migrant women was lower than that of migrant men, the labour force participation rate of migrant women compared to non-migrant women was partly higher, varying by country income level. In high-income countries and lower-middle-income countries, migrant women had a higher labour force participation rate (2.4% and 5.4% respectively), while in upper-middle-income countries and low-income countries, migrant women’s labour force participation rates were lower by 5.5 per cent and 7.2 per cent respectively (GMDAC analysis based on ibid.). The lower labour force participation of migrant women in low-income countries may be attributed to the prevalence of informal employment, which is not fully captured in ILO estimates within these nations (Guallar Ariño, E., 2023).
Both migrant and non-migrant women have a relatively lower labour market participation rate (53 and 48% respectively) compared to migrant and non-migrant men (78 and 73% respectively). Migrant men have a higher labour force participation rate than non-migrant men in all destination country income levels, apart from low-income countries. The highest gap is in high-income countries, where migrant men had a 12 per cent higher labour force participation rate than non-migrant men (ILO, 2024).
Back to topMigrant women in the OECD
Employment rates
Among OECD countries, the share of women among new immigrants to OECD countries increased from 44% in 2019 to 48% in 2022 (OECD, 2024). In that year, twelve OECD countries reported a higher number of migrant women than men, up from five in 2021. Employment outcomes for female migrants generally improved in 2022, often exceeding those of male migrants. Significant increases in employment rates for foreign-born women were recorded in the EU27 (an increase of 1.1 percentage points), the United States (1.3 percentage points), and Australia (0.9 percentage points). However, slight declines were observed in Korea (0.5 percentage points) and New Zealand (0.1 percentage points) (ibid).
Whereas the employment rate for native-born men showed minimal changes, foreign-born men saw slight increases in the UK (1.0 percentage point) and Canada (0.7 percentage points), as well as slight decreases in Korea (1.4 percentage points) and New Zealand (0.8 percentage points) (ibid).
In non-European OECD member states, the increase in employment rates among female migrants was greater than that among male migrants. Conversely, in European OECD member states, the opposite trend was observed (ibid).
Gender employment gaps
The gender employment gap for migrants decreased by 1.3 percentage points in the United States, 2.3 percentage points in Australia, and 0.7 percentage points in the EU27 (OECD, 2024). Nonetheless, the gap increased in the United Kingdom (by 0.8 percentage points) and Canada (by 0.3 percentage points) (ibid).
In 2023, the employment rates of migrant mothers were lower than those of their native-born counterparts, underscoring difficulties like limited access to affordable childcare, social protection, and flexible job opportunities. Studies conducted across EU member states show that the employment rates of migrant mothers can have a beneficial effect on their children's future involvement in the labour market (ibid).
Female entrepreneurship
Migrant women remain underrepresented in the area of self-employment (OECD, 2024). In all countries except Lithuania, the self-employment rate among female migrants is lower than that of male migrants. In the same vein, native-born women exhibit a lower likelihood of being self-employed compared to native-born men (ibid).
In 2022, the self-employment rate among female migrants across OECD countries was about 9 per cent, which is 6 percentage points lower than that of male migrants. The difference in self-employment rates among foreign-born and native-born women is smaller, measuring 0.9 percentage points (ibid).
While few self-employed migrant women work in construction, transport, or storage, they are overrepresented in accommodation and food services (12.6 per cent compared to 6.4 per cent for native-born women) and in other services (16.4 per cent compared to 13.9 per cent) in EU-EFTA OECD countries (ibid).
Back to topFemale diasporas and remittances
International migration stock estimates often serve as a proxy for assessing diaspora communities due to the absence of a standardized definition and limited data availability on diasporas (Schöfberger, I. and Manke, M., 2023).
Migrants and diasporas may contribute to their countries of origin or descent and destination, as well as to transnational societies, in different ways. Contributions may refer to transfers of human, social, cultural, and economic capital.However, estimates of these transfers globally are still inconsistent, and some have not yet been sufficiently quantified, such as the contributions of human capital (ibid).
In terms of economic contributions, personal remittances remain the most recognized and quantifiable form (ibid). However, the World Bank’s estimates on global remittances, which are the main data source on remittance data, lack disaggregated data by sex, resulting in limited evidence on comparative data of remittances sent by female migrants and male migrants (Guallar Ariño, E., 2023). Nevertheless, evidence suggests that women remit the same or even greater amounts than men, despite often earning less and paying more in transfer fees (UN Women, 2020).
Back to topGender-responsive migration policies
Among MGI-assessed countries only one in five (21%) have a gender-responsive migration strategy (IOM, 2025). While some countries incorporate gender perspectives in their migration policies, more efforts are needed to align migration and gender equality frameworks at all government levels. MGI data shows that countries with mechanisms for vertically coherent migration policies are more likely (52%) to develop gender-responsive strategies in comparison to those lacking such mechanisms (13%) (IOM, 2024). Only one in three (36%) of MGI-assessed countries regularly collect and publish sex-disaggregated migration data and only one in four (25%) countries collect data on the labour market disaggregated by migration status and sex (IOM, 2025).
Back to topDisplaced women and girls
Women and girls displaced cross borders
At the end of 2023, women and girls accounted for an estimated 49 per cent of all refugees and asylum seekers globally(UNHCR, 2024). The five top countries of origin of female refugees and asylum seekers were Afghanistan (3.2 million), the Syrian Arab Republic (3 million), Ukraine (1.3 million), South Sudan (1.2 million) and Sudan (677,000) (ibid).
Women and girls living in internal displacement
At the end of 2023, 38.1 million women and girls were living in internal displacement due to conflict, violence and disasters, and they accounted for 50.2 per cent of all IDPs (IDMC, 2024). Among the 38.1 million internally displaced women and girls (IDPs), around 40 per cent were younger than 18 years (ibid).
The following five countries* had the highest number of females internally displaced persons (IDPs) in total terms at the end of 2024:Sudan: 6.2 million (53.9%), Democratic Republic of the Congo: 4 million (57.8%), Syrian Arab Republic: 3.4 million (49%), Nigeria: 1.9 million (55.3%) and Somalia: 1.8 million (55.5%) (IOM Displacement Tracking Matrix, 2025).
The countries with the highest share of female IDPs at the end of 2024 were: Malawi (58.8%), Chad (58.3%), Madagascar (58%), Mali (57.9%) and Democratic Republic of the Congo (57.8%) (ibid).
*Note: Trends are based only on countries where DTM operates. All data is correct as of end of Dec 2024; data for the Syrian Arab Republic is as of end of Feb 2025.
Back to topMissing female migrants
Information on sex is only available for 1 out of 3 people (27,348 of the nearly 72,797 people) who lost their lives during migration globally between 1 January 2014 and 31 December 2024 (IOM’s Missing Migrants Project, 2025). Of these 27,348 migrant deaths where data on sex are available, 23.5 per cent were women(ibid).Nearly half (43%) of the deaths of identified female migrants occurred during sea crossings, where the survival chances of women were limited as they were pregnant or caring for their children on board (ibid).
Back to topDetected Victims of Human Trafficking
Women and girls make up 74 per cent of all registered victims of human trafficking (CTDC, 2025). The majority (74%) of women and girls are trafficked for sexual exploitation (ibid). Human trafficking has long been perceived primarily as a crime affecting women and girls, especially in the context of sexual exploitation. While a significant proportion of victims are female, recent data indicates a notable increase in the identification of male victims. This shift reflects a growing recognition that men and boys are also vulnerable to various forms of human trafficking, including sexual exploitation, and improvements in the detection of such cases. The gender distribution among trafficked children mirrors that of adults.
Definition
Key terms and concepts that pertain to gender and migration are as follows:
Sex-disaggregated data refer to the “differentiation of information by sex categories as typically listed on official identification, including male, female and other designations such as O, T or X, depending on the country.” (Hennebry et al., 2021).
Sex refers to “The classification of a person as having female, male and/or intersex sex characteristics. While infants are usually assigned the sex of male or female at birth based on the appearance of their external anatomy alone, a person’s sex is a combination of a range of bodily sex characteristics” (IOM, 2021).
Gender-disaggregated data refer to “information about an individual’s gender identity. Gathering accurate gender-disaggregated data requires respondents to self-identify their gender, which may or may not correspond with their sex assigned at birth or the gender attributed to them by society” (Hennebry et al., 2021).
Gender refers to “The socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for individuals based on the sex they were assigned at birth“ (IOM, 2021).
There are several relevant concepts such as gender equality and gender-based violence (GBV) that are widely discussed in the migration field:
Gender equality refers to “The equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities of all individuals of all genders. Equality does not mean that all individuals are the same, but that rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on one’s sex assigned at birth, physical sex characteristics, gender norms assigned by society, gender identity or gender expression. Gender equality also requires that the interests, needs and priorities of all individuals should be taken into consideration. Equality between people of all genders, including cisgender and transgender men and women, other transgender people, non-binary people, and people with other diverse gender identities, is seen both as a human rights issue and a precondition for, and indicator of, sustainable people-centred development” (IOM, 2024).
Gender-based violence, according to the The Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), is defined as “any harmful act that is perpetrated against a person’s will and that is based on socially ascribed (i.e. gender) differences between males and females. It includes acts that inflict physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering, threats of such acts, coercion, and other deprivations of liberty” (IOM, 2019).
IOM recognizes that each person has a gender identity, which refers to their "deeply felt internal and individual experience of gender, which may or may not correspond with the sex they were assigned at birth, or the gender attributed to them by society. It includes the personal sense of the body which may involve a desire for modification of appearance or function of the body by medical, surgical or other means” (IOM, 2021).
Back to topData sources
Data on gender and migration are collected and analyzed separately for male and female migrants. Although sex-disaggregated data are not always collected, major data sources that collect sex-disaggregated migration-related data are population censuses, administrative registers, and sample surveys such as labor force surveys and income and living condition surveys. Data from these data sources are compiled in databases. The following are the databases on migration disaggregated by sex.
Global
The Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA) provides several international migrant stock datasets for all countries and areas and disaggregates data by sex, age and origin. UN DESA publishes datasets on a bi-yearly basis. Its latest dataset on the international migrant stock was published in 2020.
The International Labour Organization’s (ILO) Department of Statistics (ILOSTAT) has a database on Key Indicators of the Labour Market (KILM). This database provides datasets on labour migration that are grouped into three major themes: international migrant stock, nationals abroad and international migrant flow. These themes contain estimates of demographic stocks/flows and labour migrant stocks/flows and are predominantly disaggregated by sex and age. The database provides labour migration statistics for all countries and areas of the world on an annual basis.
The ILO reports "Global Estimates on Migrant Workers" from 2015, 2018 and 2021 and 2024 provide estimates on the share of labour migrant workers among the total international migrants and highlights regions and industries where international migrant workers are established. They also present demographic characteristics of international labour migration, and the 2015 report specifically focuses on the proportion of female and male migrant workers in domestic work globally.
IOM’s Migration Law Database consolidates information on international migration law and frames it in a comprehensive manner. It draws together migration-related instruments including gender-related norms in the migration context. The database contains relevant international, regional and bilateral treaties, international and regional resolutions, declarations and other instruments.
IOM and Polaris pulled together existing data on human trafficking and created the Counter-Trafficking Data Collaborative (CTDC) repository. It contains data on cases of human trafficking disaggregated by sex and age. An anonymized version of this dataset is available for public download. In 2022, CTDC published a dataset on victims and their accounts of perpetrators for which IOM and Microsoft Research developed and refined an algorithm to generate synthetic data from IOM's sensitive victim case records.
BRIDGE was a gender and development research service at the Institute of Development Studies, which advocated for the significance of a gender perspective in endeavours to reduce poverty and promote social justice in the migration processes. Among other development-related objectives, BRIDGE focused on gender aspects of migration.
The Gender Dimensions of Forced Displacement (GDFD) Research Program was established by the World Bank in partnership with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). The program looked at a variety of interrelated drivers and manifestations of gender inequality, such as income and multidimensional poverty, livelihoods, gender norms, and gender-based violence including the risks of experiencing intimate partner violence and child marriage.
Asia
The ILO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific has a database called the International Labour Migration Statistics (ILMS) Database which compiles a variety of statistical sources on international migrants and international migrant workers. It generates statistical data from population and housing censuses, labour force surveys, household surveys, enterprise surveys and administrative records. The ILMS Database presents datasets on the international migrant stock, international migrant flow and nationals abroad. Data are broken down by sex, age, employment status, education, occupation, economic activity and origin.
Europe
The Gender Statistics Database, a database of the European Union (EU)’s European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE), provides statistical evidence on numerous themes including migration from all over the EU and beyond, at the EU, Member State and European Level. It contains estimates on the immigrant stock, immigration and emigration flows, and migration and education. Data are disaggregated by sex, age, migration status and 55 other migration-related indicators. This database is used by the Member States to comply with the European Commission’s (EC) Strategy on Gender Equality and monitor their progress.
Data on population demography and migration are collected by Eurostat on a yearly basis. The Population (Demography, Migration, and Projections) database has a dataset on migration and citizenship data, which is divided into three major thematic groups: immigration, emigration, and acquisition and loss of citizenship. The estimates are mostly disaggregated by sex, age group, citizenship, country of birth, and ranking in the Human Development Index.
Eurostat’s database on asylum and managed migration is based on data collected from the Member States’ Ministries of Interior and related Immigration Agencies. The database presents data on asylum, residence permits and the enforcement of immigration legislation (EIL). Data on asylum and residence permits are mostly disaggregated by sex and age group.
OECD’s Migration Statistics contains databases on Immigrants in OECD countries (DIOC) and non-OECD countries (DIOC-E). These databases present data on several demographic and labour market characteristics of the population of 32 OECD member countries and 68 non-members. The thematic datasets of this database are broken down by seven core variables: gender (male/female), age, duration of stay, labour market outcomes, field of study, the place of birth and educational attainment.
OECD’s Gender, Institutions and Development database (GID-DB) presents comparative data on gender-based discrimination in social institutions such as legal, cultural and traditional practices and covers 179 countries for 2023. The database consists of variables such as the legal age of marriage, early marriage rates, parental authority in marriage and after divorce, violence against women, reproductive integrity, female genital mutilation, and other gender topics. This database provides datasets on the Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI), which measures the extent to which social institutions are discriminatory, to reveal main drivers of gender inequality and their impact on women’s empowerment opportunities. This dataset has 21 variables of discriminatory social institutions that are grouped into five sub-indices such as discriminatory family code, restricted physical integrity, son bias, restricted civil liberties and restricted resources/assets.
By disaggregating and analyzing data by the variables “female” and “male” migrant, researchers produce broad migration statistics on these two different groups. However, to understand more thoroughly the gender patterns present throughout the migration processes, more qualitative studies and inclusion of specific relevant questions in surveys are needed to reveal the power imbalances in migration decisions, labor markets, remittance sending/utilization, and the impact of migration on social relations in the households and communities experiencing out-migration.
Back to topData strengths & limitations
Sex-disaggregated migration data are an essential starting point to understanding and addressing the difference in experiences, opportunities and outcomes of migrants of different genders, as well as questioning erroneous gender stereotypes such as labelling women as always vulnerable and men as never vulnerable.
By using sex-disaggregated data sources, policymakers will be able to initiate effective evidence-based programmes,.
Nevertheless, there are some limitations to existing data and data sources:
Sex-disaggregated and gender-disaggregated data are not always collected or estimated. For example, World Bank – KNOMAD’s estimates on remittances are one of the datasets providing evidence on the most direct and well-known link between migration and development. However, these data are not disaggregated by sex or gender. This makes it difficult to distinguish gender differences in remittance sending such as the amount of money, frequency, channels and reasons.
Disaggregated data are particularly complex to collect in certain contexts, such as displacement situations. The Global Internal Displacement Database (GIDD) provides a limited amount of sex-disaggregated data on internal displacement since data are not collected by sex; data are instead collected by household. The IDMC’s Internal Displacement Index discovered that in 2022, 26 countries did not publish sex-disaggregated data for conflict and displacement (IDMC, 2023).
Similarly, data on migrants’ deaths are only occasionally disaggregated by sex because it is highly contingent on the identification of bodies (IOM, 2019). There are other reasons why data are rarely disaggregated by sex. Some authorities have low statistical capacities to produce more granular data; are unwilling to collect and disaggregate data; and/or aim to protect migrants’ postmortem privacy and therefore disseminate aggregated data.
Beyond data disaggregation, deep qualitative analysis of barriers, challenges, needs, capacities and priorities is required, utilizing gender analysis, where possible analyzing overlapping, intersectional inequalities. This will enable policymakers and programmers to understand and address the experience of persons of different genders, ages, disabilities, and other social factors, ensuring that approaches are gender-responsive.
Furthermore, sex-disaggregated data alone may not provide a comprehensive understanding of migration experiences for persons of all genders since a person's sex assigned at birth may not align with their gender identity or expression, or the experiences of persons of diverse sexual orientations and sex characteristics ("persons with diverse SOGIESC"). Due to the significant ethical considerations and potential protection risks to collecting data on individuals' gender identity, expression, sexual orientation, and sex characteristics. This concern is particularly pronounced in countries with discriminatory laws, policies and cultural norms, where data collection can put vulnerable groups at risk and data collection outcomes might be unreliable.Gathering qualitative data and analysis to inform policy and programme decisions on persons with diverse gender identities and gender expressions can lead to a more nuanced comprehension of the dynamics of human mobility and the varied experiences of migrants and displaced individuals, and eventually to more informed programming and policymaking.
Further reading
| Abel, Guy J. | |
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| 2022 |
Gender and Migration Data. KNOMAD / WORLDBANK, 2023. |
